The web has been highly social since it began (listservs, Usenet groups, discussion software, groupware etc)
Web 2.0 breaks “away from the notion of the Web as book, they are predicated on microcontent. Blogs are about posts, not pages. Wikis are streams of conversation, revision, amendment and truncation.”
“Like social software, microcontent has been around for a while. Banner ads, for example, are often imported by one site from another directory. Collaboratively designed web pages sometimes aggregate content created by different teams over a staggered timeline”
“Openness remains a hallmark of this emergent movement, both ideologically and technologically”
“Openness and microcontent combine into a larger conceptual strand of Web 2.0, one that sees users as playing more of a foundational role in information architecture” (tagging)
“How can social bookmarking play a role in higher education?… First, they act as an “outboard memory”, a location to store links that might be lost to time, scattered across different browser bookmark settings or distributed in e-mails, printouts and Web links.
Second, finding people with related interests can magnify one’s work by learning from others or by leading to new collaborations. Third, the practice of user-created tagging can offer new perspectives on one’s research, as clusters of tags reveal patterns (or absences) not immediately visible by examining one of several URLs.
Fourth, the ability to create multi-authored bookmark pages can be useful for team projects, as each member can upload resources discovered, no matter their location or timing. Tagging can then surface individual perspectives within the collective. Fifth, following a bookmark site gives insights into the owner’s (or owners’) research, which could play well in a classroom setting as an instructor tracks students’ progress. Students, in turn, can learn from their professor’s discoveries. ”
Wikis, blogging and RSS are good. (He says more but you surely know this stuff by now
The reverse chronological nature of Web 2.0 is particularly good for queries on current events.
Potential issues – copyright, network security when hosted on local networks, stability/longevity of service providers, preservation of useful pieces of microcontent, corporate buy-ups
Some interesting ideas in this one, much more based in what is happening rather than the hype of what might come.
One of the things I’ve discovered in using 3D games with people who don’t play them (at all) is that the concepts of moving and looking around the space can actually be quite challenging. I’ve had people actually report feeling a little nauseous from the experience, so the need for a very straight forward, highly directed instructional level became quickly apparent.
This is the initial stage of Playing the Game, my attempt to do this.
There’s still a fair slab of work to come but I think it’s on track.
Given the scaffolding nature of the skills being developed, it takes a fairly behaviourist directed learning approach, with each skill introduced and accomplished before the learner moves on to the next one.
Bennett, S. and Reilly, P. (1998). Using interactive multimedia to improve operator training at Queensland Alumina Limited. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 14(2), 75-87. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet14/bennett.html.
Lockyer, L. & Bennett, S. (2003) Digital video cases: Investigating the effectiveness of technology-supported continuing professional education for general practitioners. In N. Smythe (Ed.), Proceedings of the Apple University Consortium Conference (pp. 13.1-13.7). (Proceedings published on CD-ROM.)
These are two papers published about the process of developing some multimedia learning resources. They are written by some of my uni lecturers, which makes this a little weird but I’ll press on anyway.
The first revolves around a package called Dual Diagnosis, which is designed to assist GPs with evaluating patients with both mental illness and substance dependencies. It includes video clip case study examples of patients attending a number of sessions with a doctor. It also has pre and post tests and a range of printed information and weblinks. There is also the ability to take notes within the tool.
Overall this is a pretty well put together package (well, at least given my knowledge of medicine) – however one thing I would have found useful was more in depth feedback in the pre and post tests. It gives you a breakdown of the questions that you got right and wrong but doesn’t reiterate what they were and what the correct answers should have been. This might have broken the elegance of the single page presentation but would have been more helpful.
“Case-based methods are considered to support learners in making links between theory and practice – specifically such methods support active, independent learning with authentic situations and interactions. (Bromley, 1986). Learners are required to analyse these ‘real-world’ problems, reflect on their understandings, interact with other learners and thus explore multiple perspectives and reflect upon or suggest a course of action. (Bennett, Harper and Hedberg, 2002). Specifically these strategies are seen to support deep understanding, critical analysis, decision-making and communication skill development”
This package was tested on two groups of GPs – one that had attended a face-to-face orientation session and another that hadn’t. This paper was written before the evaluation was complete but some of the responses to and concerns about the package were interesting – “Participants expressed concern about using it in an office setting – particularly with a patient in the office. They also identified that they already felt pressed for time and were unsure that they would find opportunity to work through the package. Some identified lack of access to a computer or were concerned that they might lack the necessary technology literacy to use the package”
This suggests to me that some people will instinctly react against the use of multimedia technology and that the design of the interface should be as simple as possible (which I think it is in this case) and probably should reflect something that the learner is already familiar and comfortable with.
The second package is a fairly specific training package for alumina producers at an aluminium refinery in Queensland. It is very much about training workers in particular processes to ensure maximum efficiency and safety.
Bennett begins by illustrating the proven usefulness of multimedia in education.
“Interactive multimedia can offer a range of benefits over traditional training approaches by providing improved flexibility, cost and time effectiveness, consistency and availability… Forman (1995) identifies benefits and values in four major areas – organisational benefits, instructional benefits, learning effectiveness and business efficiency.l Multimedia can also provide improved and more consistent testing and administration… Keppell and Richards (1996) also suggest that self paced multimedia materials offer a private environment which enables trainees to review the material as many times as they wish”
The multimedia package was designed as a supplementary resource to the face to face instruction.
“A new training structure was designed which incorporated a multimedia tutorial which could be used before, during and after practical training sessions with an experienced operator”
There was a comprehensive development cycle used:
Needs assessment
Costing and scheduling
Content collection
Planning grid development
Editorial
Client review
Revision and sign-off
Image collection
Digitising
Authoring
Audio
Beta testing
Client review
Revision and sign-off
Delivery
Trial and evaluation
“These multimedia packages were developed to train operators of heavy mining equipment and were designed to address limited literacy and computer skills through the following strategies:
the use of simple direct language
limiting screen information to a single concept
logical explanations for procedures
use of graphics to support and explain text
use of large buttons
avoidance of icons
limited navigation options (next, back, help, quit, menu and settings”
“Further development of this model has seen the inclusion of optional, full narration which matches the on-screen text and text/audio help which provides an explanation of the features on each screen. Kenworthy (1993) recommends that information be both visualised and verbalised for poor readers and that supporting audio match on-screen text exactly to allow the identification of unfamiliar words.”
Those are some particularly handy hints – the use of audio in a lot of educational multimedia resources is very underdone and I think it should be used in most places that you have text. I was surprised by the avoidance of icons – maybe this means icons by themselves without accompanying text – I might have to follow that up.
All in all a couple of interesting projects with some good detailed information about the multimedia design and development process.
This is the design statement for my latest foray into game based learning. I’ve used FPS Creator once more to create a democratic learning environment which creates a simulation of the Education Development Centre here. Learners can access scenario tasks in the course of find out about the multitude of awesome services and knowledge we can provide
This is a fairly wordy section on a quite specific aspect of the process of designing interactive multimedia so I’m just going to scan for salient quotes. (I’m a little tired
“Given the capability of multimedia systems to house massive quantities of information and to construct complex delivery systems, it seems reasonable to encourage the development of instructional systems which contain mre than a single cognitive orientation. In this way, the designer can impose consistency between the cognitive orientation and different learning tasks, and also capitalise on the possibility of designing instruction which is compatible with learning styles and preferences”
I won’t quote it but there’s a pretty good summation of the differences between the behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist philosophies and approaches in this chapter.
They then move on to look at options for specifying content.
“Many projects will result in a glut of information you need to organise. In fact, one can argue that instructional design is largely the process of organising rather than creating, opportunities for learning”
The Content Outline is a suggested approach, consisting of a set of objectives for the course, the content necessary to achieve them and the treatment that the the content might be given. (How it is presented)
From here, Design specifications are quite useful – simple things to ensure consistency across the multimedia product- These might be broken into technical standards, instructional formats and aesthetic considerations.
Technical standards could look at issues like:
Writing style
Screen format (eg a single idea to a screen of text)
Grammar (eg no contractions to be used)
Numbering
Layout restrictions
Abbreviations
Instructional formats could consider:
Strategy (e.g scenarios with background reading)
Menu Organisation (advanced organisers)
Length of segments (time allocated to activities)
Reading level
Test-like events
feedback
Aesthetic considerations:
Screen text (font + size)
Color
Computer vs video
music
illustrations
visual cues
From here, Misanchuk & Schwier see the next step as setting up the framework for the content.
This takes five forms.
Core instruction: introductory segments (what’s to come, objectives) + core instruction (the primary content) + summary segments (reinforcing key points)
Complementary instruction: help segments (rephrasing or embellishing core instruction) + remedial segments (filling in scaffolding knowledge that should already be there) + additional information (enriching but not essential extra info). (Complementary instruction shouldn’t appear by default but should be easily accessible if it is needed)
Management elements: quizzes, games, scenarios which offer feedback (or assessment)
Navigation elements: easy access to all sections of content, global escape route, “you are here” type maps
Interactive elements: immediacy of response, non-sequential access of information, adaptability, feedback, options, bi-directionality and interruptability (pause and escape options and context sensitive help)
“For interaction to be dynamic, it is necessary to build content for the varied directions the instruction may follow.This means developing a great deal of content which any particular learner may never see.”
From here, Schwier and Misanchuk move on to the matter of allowing learners to practice their new knowledge in the multimedia environment. They outline some generalised principles for this:
practice during instruction should be varied, not constant
as familiarity with the learning task increases, so should the difficulty of practice increase
learners should be weaned from prompts as their facility with knowledge or skills increases
use practice often during the early stages of learning and gradually lengthen the space between practice sessions on a particular topic as instruction progresses
for some types of learning, practice should progress from accuracy to speed to automaticity
review segments can be used successfully in place of questions
feedback should identify the successful and the unsuccessful features of the interaction and describe why incorrect responses or omissions are insufficient
learners can benefit from memory or organisational strategies to make information more meaningful
practice events should require learners to use information and discover and derive new relationships in information
practice should be designed to motivate learners
Learner control:
There are a range of areas that learners might control in a multimedia product:
which content they access
the method it is presented in
whether they access supplementary material
the order they access the content
how much practice they undertake
level of difficulty of exercises undertaken
They finish up the chapter by looking at some different studies on what happens when learners use multimedia products in groups – some show that retention is the same for singles as pairs but drops off with 3 or more in the group while other studies don’t. (But the 2 vs 3+ thing seems to make a certain amount of sense – hard to cram three people around a screen for one thing)
Hedberg, J. and Harper, B. (1997) Creating Motivating Interactive Learning Environments. Keynote address at EDMEDIA, Calgary, Canada, 1997.
This paper repeats a lot of the points covered in the last two.
It still contains a few interesting points though so I’ll try to sum them up as succinctly as I can. (As it’s getting late and wading through this hard to read ode to constructivism has fried my mind a little)
In essence:
learners use productivity tools to construct their own meaningful chunks of content that sum up the available information
In designing learning environments: 1. identify the information to be covered, how to structure it and what the target audience already knows about it 2. find a metaphor to shape the information structure 3. link the design ideas to an interaction structure
This next bit is actually worth quoting (I think):
” Each interaction consists of a node point which forms the basis of the interaction, a set of options which provide links to other nodes or additional information attached to the current node. One of the links must relate to earlier travelled or preferred paths through the materials and each choice must inform the user about what is likely to occur as the result of a choice.
These can translate into the traditional concept of results (correct or incorrect) or performance support enhancement such as suggested hints (maybe you could have levels of hints?) or revision of the underlying concept/principle which might be employed to make the choice.
Depending on the instructional strategy chosen, another element might include the concept of duration, either time or the limit of options based up previous choices or paths taken.”
“The range and extent of user interaction with the data in the software increases as the user is given more freedom to navigate, access, determine the format of information representation and manipulate the data using cognitive and metacognitive tools”
You can have more than just text in the information presented.
In interaction, “it is important that the user is required to think before a response is possible”
“Being able to store and report thoughts and impressions derived from media experiences by using the media itself (actual video/audio and pictures, not just text representations of the media) provides a more powerful means of ‘reformulating’ (Schroeder & Kenny, 1994, p 965)”
Simulations can be powerful tools – “which provides support for the solution to one of the embedded problems by mimicking a “real world process”"
Good idea to allow learners to share and compare the products that they create – particularly to compare them against the work of experts in the field – “learning can occur through the resolution of multiple responses to the same task”
Florin, F. (1990) Information Landscapes. In S. Ambron & K. Hooper (Eds) Learning with Interactive Multimedia. Microsoft Press. pp. 27-49.
“As you visit an information landscape, you can merely walk along pathways and look at roadside attractions, or you can choose from many different options. Some of the options take you on linear trails, which you experience passively from start to finish, as you would ride in a bus. Other activities give you local control – similar to driving a car. Maps can show you a bird’s eye view of the territory and guides can take you on tours or give you more conversational assistance.”
Fabice Florin presents a range of different models for presenting information – broken into five essential structures:
Collections of data
Interactive documentaries
Annotated movies
Networks of guides
Hands-on activities
“I have referred to raw images, sounds, text, and film clips as data, regardless of media type. Meaningful arrangments of such data into thoughtful presentations are referred to as information”
collections of data:
“the simplest way to present knowledge is to break it down into collections of similar data or materials” Should that be information?
Data could be organised in a cube shape, with an x, y and z axis to define it in different ways (eg data could be presented chronologically along the x – width – axis, thematically along the y – height – axis and alphabetically along the z – depth – axis)
This system has limitations in that it may be necessary to categorise data in more than 3 ways and it may be difficult to create meaningful connections between the data in this manner.
Florin reached these conclusions about this approach:
“Clusters of tightly interconnected materials focused on specific topics are more satisfying that thin layers of data covering broad subjects. For example, isolated pictures are not as interesting as sets of five or more, where each picture in the set adds meaning to the others, exposing relations hidden in the single shot
In most cases, pictures with no good captions or data are not very useful
Still pictures and text can ofter be perecived as lifeless unless they are combined with sound or motion footage. I highly recommend that great care be given to the selection of a rich audio track and, if possible, film or video clips that bring a subject to life.”
interactive documentaries:
“a more elaborate structure for an information landscape is the interactive documentary, which centres all data around modular presentations. These presentations can be short stories or interactive diagrams linked to related materials. By focusing on such presentations as building blocks of an information landscape, more meaning is given to the materials, connecting data points to each other along specific lines of thought. These nodes of informations can now be browsed as integrated documents, rather than as disconnected data. Moreover, users can choose the order in which these presentations appear and interrupt them at will”
(e.g a sequence of video clips set up like a storyboard, with a brief explanatory title below each one)
The important aspect is that the information is connected but democratically accessible and learners can dig down into related collections of data from the starting point.
“It is a collection of experiences and ideas about a given subject, available to users in either linear or nonlinear modules, story modules organise materials against a temporal axis, whereas place modules arrange them in a spatial layout.”
“A clear drawback however is that often no easy way exists for first-time users to know which modules to try first, and some time needs to be spent poking around and playing clips at random before discovering what is available”
annotated movies
“In this structure, a feature-length movie is the main backbone of the landscape. Unlike the free-form browsing approach of the interactive documentary, the annotated movie has a strong linear structure. Viewers are encouraged to view the entire movie and then to use the interactive information environment surrounding the movie to revisit it and explore the issues that it raises”
This is one of many examples in which this print based article really suffers from the lack of a supplementary website, where we can actually experience the material being discussed. I think I understand it but I’m not sure if this means that the whole movie is clickable, providing interactivity all the way through or if it is a menu that offers this option. As far as I can see, it’s the former, but being able to see this in action would be a tremendous help.
“One of the main advantages of the annotated movie is that the narrative provides a common thread that ties together all subject in the information landscape. Having to build around a specific storyline encourages the interactive developers to go for depth rather than breadth, which makes for a richer environment”
networks of guides
“Looming on the horizon is a fascinating challenge, that of building information landscapes containing individual guides who provide users with personalised assistance”
Perhaps something like the internet – making use of real people and computer mediated communications? (Ah, ok, he comes to this as an option)
“The best way for an information landscape to grow is through live channels of communication to and from the outside world, allowing for feedback, editing, updates and so on. In such a scenario, the process becomes more important than the actual product. The system becomes a focal point for the development of a community of interested users and authors who collectively extend the shared knowledgebase.
This requires a simple but powerful set of composition tools that allow content experts and novice users to mark, annotate, link and otherwise interconnect various parts of the information landscape. Such tools would let users compare different points of view and develop their own through essays, diagrams, tours and other custom presentations. Ultimately, any user could become a guide to the environment.
To illustrate this concept, I have added guides to the landscape in my diagram. These guides add their knowledge to the environment by connecting various information nodes and data points; the webs they weave reach deep within the shared landscape, but they also extend out into the real world.”
Ok, well this impresses me a fair bit – certainly for something written in 1990. It seems to predict Wikipedia and the social webby quite a few years. (It is very much in keeping with Tim Berners Lee’s initial vision for the World Wide Web)
“As larger user communities gather around our information landscapes, different classes of guides are likely to emerge, including:
System operators, information brokers and editors – who provide general services to help connect users with what they are looking for (i.e. Search engines, RSS? )
Specialists and content experts – who concentrate on specific subjects and report on their particular knowledge domain (websites)
Interdisciplinary authors – who provide editorial commentaries and personal insights across a wide range of subjects
Other users – who share tips with each other about interesting information they have found or added to the system (the blogosphere, social web news sites like Digg, Wikipedia)
hands-on activities
“the guiding principle is that they be fun and that they help users gain new insights”
“these activities are very compelling because they let users participate as players in the environment, not merely as spectators. The locus of control is shifted from the designers back to the users. Rather than absorb someone else’s ideas, users now determine the outcome of their individual experiences. The make choices and reach their own conclusions. This deepens their understanding of the subject, because that knowledge was discovered “hands-on” and is now theirs”
“The reason such activities seem so important is that they suggest different modes of interaction between users and their information environment. An activity provides an arena for people to play in and materials to play with; most importantly, however, it gives people ideas of what to do in that context”
Ok, so he thinks that games and scenario based activity is good – I’m hardly going to argue with that.
design factors to consider
“The first step in designing an information resource is to define it’s primary purpose:
Is it meant as a generic resource or to teach a specific topic?
How broad does it have to be?
Who is the intended user group?
How will users interact with it?
Where do they need the most help?
The next step is to identify the materials available for that project:
How much data is provided for each item?
Are the items catalogued?
Are they cross-indexed?
Have they been annotated or edited together with a single commentary?
Are they disparate documents or have they been carefully researched and sorted?
You now have to select a particular structure as the main framework of the landscape. The purpose of the project and the nature of the materials may suggest one but more often it is a creative call. This process feels somewhat like landscaping or urban design:
What primary features do you want to build around?
Which secondary features do you want to emphasise?
How do you balance these different elements?
How do people move from one to another?
I like to think of the different structures presented above as different types of space in a rural landscape. For example, collections could be fields of raw materials, a documentary could be seen as a small town, a movie might flow like a stream through the landscape, guides might be shown as figures on a hilltop and activities might be represented by a playground.
Like a city planner, you are designing not only the structure of the information landscape but also the flows and processes that take place in and around that environment. In the end, you really are shaping the culture of a user group, not just its database. “
I think this is one of the most useful things I have read in this course so far. Looking forward to seeing how I can put it into practice.
Brown A.R., & Voltz B.D. (2005) Elements of Effective e-Learning Design, International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/217/300
Annotation: Design elements to consider when developing e-learning materials. Paper provides examples of learning objects developed by The Le@arning Federation (TLF) to explain the design elements. (As you read this paper, see if you think they’re interpretation of e-learning relates to your interpretation of network-based learning.)
Abstract: Preparing and developing e-learning materials is a costly and time consuming enterprise. This paper highlights the elements of effective design that we consider assist in the development of high quality materials in a cost efficient way. We introduce six elements of design and discuss each in some detail. These elements focus on paying attention to the provision of a rich learning activity, situating this activity within an interesting story line, providing meaningful opportunities for student reflection and third party criticism, considering appropriate technologies for delivery, ensuring that the design is suitable for the context in which it will be used, and bearing in mind the personal, social, and environmental impact of the designed activities. Along the way, we describe how these design elements can be effectively utilized by contextualizing them with examples from an e-learning initiative.
Key Points:
Text, images and sound can be combined to create materials that cater for several learning styles and allow a degree of interactivity on the part of the student.
Six key elements of eLearning design: Activity, Scenario, Feedback, Delivery, Context and Impact
Activity – the actions/challenges of clear tasks offer experiences leading to desired new understanding
Scenario – a relevant, authentic context offers motivation to learners and adds meaning
Feedback – experience becomes knowledge through reflection, which is enhanced by timely/appropriate criticism
Delivery – horses for courses – use what best serves the other 5 elements
Context – consider the eLearning activity in relation to the rest of the course/institution/platform/culture
Impact – does the content/platform benefit the learner/teacher/wider community
In essence, prioritise the student experience.
I think that the first three points here are the key ones in learning design – the others are things that will be considered by default (as long as you respect the learner) and don’t necessarily have as much direct bearing on the effectiveness of the material.
Interesting and useful quotes:
“Effective design of electronic learning materials relies on instructional design processes that reflect the absence of or reduction in face-to-face instruction… by ‘design’ we mean the planning or working out of the e-learning resource. This combines tasks including lesson planning, instructional design, creative writing and software specification”
“In the modern world, language is not the only important communication system. Today images, symbols, graphs, diagrams, artefacts and many other visual symbols are ‘particularly significant’ (Gee 2003 p.13)”
ACTIVITY:
“creating effective e-learning relies on having tasks for students to undertake that provide an experience likely to lead them to the desired new understanding”
“a rich activity is one that opens up opportunties for action rather that directs students down a prescribed pathway”
“the activity needs to be considered from the perspective of the actions and challenges it affords the student”
“the use of an appropriate and clearly evident activity is fundamental to an effective learning outcome and ensuring that the integrity of the activity is maintained as focus shifts to the media-focused development stages is an ongoing challenge for the e-learning designer”
SCENARIO:
“There needs to be a reason or motivation to undertake an educational activity if the learning is to be memorable and considered valuable. An interesting context or scenario can assist the activity to have meaning.”
“Scenarios are usually provided by a story, role play, or simulation, within which the activity plays a pivotal role in helping the students to contextualise content”
“An interesting scenario will make extensive use of humor, imagination, reward, anticipation or drama to enhance the activity. It will have topics and themes likely to be relevant and interesting to the target audience. It will make the learning activity seem like an obvious or necessary thing to undertake, given the situation presented by the scenario”
FEEDBACK:
“Experience becomes knowledge through reflection, which is enhanced by timely and appropriate criticism”
“The range of available feedback strategies is vast, including reflective responses to prescribed questions, semi-automated responses by the system to student actions and work, shared comments in online forums and blogs, and personal responses via email, telephone and post.”
DELIVERY:
“The appropriate delivery of e-learning should aim to maximise the engagement of the student with the activity, enable the communication of stimulating contexts and maximise opportunities for feedback and reflection”
CONTEXT:
“Elements of activity, scenario and feedback need to take into account the users’ profile and the delivery element needs to consider the technical infrastructure. However, additional contextual considerations include the institutional objectives of the e-learning program, the role and skills of any instructor, longevity of the resources and cultural sensitivies”
INFLUENCE:
“Considerations about the personal influence of the e-learning design might consider… the extent to which the content benefits the user… the extent to which people other than the learner might benefit.. the extent to which the environment will benefit from the design”
CONCLUSION:
“We encourage a participatory design and implementation approach, where the e-learning system is a two-way street, allowing early and ongoing communications betweeen designer and users.”
This is the content of the final assessment for EDGI911 – I.T in Education. It takes the form of a website (for reasons that slightly escape me other than perhaps for the fact that the Uni thinks it’s a good idea for us to have a basic knowledge of web-design) which you can find here
It’s a simple site but I a couple of nice things with it – the background image of Pacman is fixed so that he stays in place when you scroll and on the page of references, I provide anchored links to the ones that I in annotated form.
This is the initial spiel – it was meant to be longer but I didn’t have anything else to say and I ran out of time.
Games in Education – an overview
As the use of information and communications technology in education grows apace, it is only logical that teachers and educational designers will focus their attention increasingly on the world of computer games.
Computer games offer a rich and engaging environment that can cater to any educational approach, from the simplest drill and practice exercises to the development of high level problem solving and collaboration skills in sophisticated three dimensional worlds.
According to the TEEM Report (2002) on the educational use of games, they “provide a forum in which learning arises as a result of tasks stimulated by the content of the games, knowledge is developed through the content of the game and skills are developed as a result of playing the game.” (p.4)
Computer games have been shown to provide benefits ranging from dramatically enhancing the eye-hand coordination and spatial perception of surgeons undertaking laparoscopic procedures (Rosser, 2007) to sparking significant improvements in understanding of mathematical concepts among primary school students.
They offer a choice between purchasing off the shelf commercial games and building your own using any of a suite of game building software tools currently available, they allow for simulations of complex situations that are often impossible to replicate in a classroom – such as coping with a spill of dangerous chemicals in a large city.
Games also stimulate and motivate collaborative behaviour as a result of naturally occurring interactions in online environments such as Massively Multiplayer Online Games which emphasise an experiential model of learning which is favoured by many learners. (Steinkuehler, 2004)
Games are an intrinsic part of the Information revolution and their full impact on education is yet to be seen, however every piece of research points to a very interesting future.
From here, I wrote four annotated references for the following papers.
#1 The Impact of Video Games on Training Surgeons in the 21st Century.
Rosser, J., Lynch, P., Cuddihy, L., Gentile, D., Klonsky, J., Merrell, R., (2007) The Impact of video games on training surgeons in the 21st Century. The Archives of Surgery, 142. 181 – 186.
Central theme and scope:
This research examines the influence of playing video games – both immediately before a task as well as playing them regularly over longer periods of time prior to the task – in the development of a range of perceptual and motor skills useful in surgery.
It has a fairly narrow scope in comparison to a lot of the research into the impact of videogames on game players however this works to the researches advantage as it takes a highly focussed approach and makes excellent use of available medical technology used to assess performance and measure neurological activity.
Intended Audience:
This paper was published in the Archives of Surgery (Feb 2007), a respected medical journal published by the American Medical Association and aimed at surgeons and other medical professionals, including teachers of surgery.
Description:
The hypotheses being tested in this study were that “surgeons with past video game experience will peform better in a standardised laparoscopic skill and suturing program” and that “video games are correlated with better peformance in a standardised laparoscopic skill and suturing program”.
To test this, 33 surgeons participated in The Rosser “Top Gun” laparoscopic skills and suturing program. This measures their speed and accuracy in a simple surgical procedure, by making use of “an inanimate electronic proctor that controls for economy of movement errors in addition to time”.
The surgeons were all surveyed about their history of game playing, surgical experience and speciality. These factors as well as gender and hand dominance were all noted.
The surgeons then spent time playing games which emphasised non-dominant hand dexterity, two-handed choreography, targeting and 2-d depth perception skills. They then undertook practice drills which involved suturing and laparoscopic procedures.
The results of the study (after all factors were considered) showed that current video gamers scored 40% better in the Top Gun suturing course. Surgeons who have played video games in the past were 33% better at laparoscopic drills and suturing. Subjects who played video games for more than 3 hours per week had 37% few errors than those who had never played. If subjects played video games for more than 3 hours per week, they were 27% faster at laparoscopic drills and suturing tasks.
The researchers behind the study came to the conclusion that video game skill and past experience with video games are significant predictors of laparoscopic skills and suturing capability. They attributed this to several neurological processes that occur during game play. There are substantial increases in Dopamine release in the stratium and prefrontal cortex – areas associated with eye-hand coordination. Dopaminergic neurotransmission is also involved in learning, reinforcement of behaviour and attention.
Relevance:
This study provides evidence that playing videogames offers benefits in the development of eye-hand coordination and visual depth perception. It differs from the other studies that I have cited in that it focuses on these factors in relation to skill development and takes a particularly clinical approach.
#2. Learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games
Steinkuehler, Constance A. (2004) “Learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games” In Y. B. Kafai, W. A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A. S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp.521-528). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Central theme and scope:
This study investigates the nature of learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs), networked 3D gaming environments that allow players to interact with objects and characters in the game as well as other (real) players.
Steinkuehler posits that players of MMOGs have rich learning experiences as a result of the “situated meanings people construct and the definitive role of communities in that meaning making process”.(p.4) She notes that it is the interactions of the members of the community in these types of games that promote learning far more than any embedded content might and that designers developing educational MMOGs need to give in-game social practice as much (if not more) attention as instructional content.
Intended audience:
This paper, which presents the preliminary findings of nearly two years research is targetted at educators interested in using games as well as developers of games for education.
Description:
Steinkuehler has taken an ethnographic approach to this research, immersing herself in an MMOG called Lineage for 19 months. Lineage is a game set during medieval times and is centred around guilds (a.k.a blood pledges) which vie for control of castles in a virtual kingdom.
She devised four key questions to structure her research, these being:
What are the social and material practices of MMOGaming?
What forms of participation mark community membership in such settings?
What means for learning are embedded not in the game as designed but rather in the community practice of those who inhabit it?
What import does participation in this community have for the situated (on and off screen) identities of its members? (p.2)
Her investigations involved participating overtly in the daily life of the game while taking “field” notes and screen capture video, noting conversations and asking questions. She interviewed other players informally in-game, through semi-structured topic specific phone interviews as well as in structured formats.
In addition to these primary resources, she also gathered data from community sources including player-authored user manuals, fan discussion boards, chatrooms and fan generated fiction.
Steinkuehler found that players learn primarily in collaboration with other, more experienced players. “During collaboration, the focus is on the activity, with information (e.g., manuals, guidebooks, websites) playing only a secondary and supporting role.”(p.7) Feedback comes from the game system (e.g., error-produced death) as well as other players and pushing yourself beyond the edge of your current competency is highly valued by the community.
Relevance:
This research is of a more qualitative focus than most of the other papers and it again focusses on a relatively specific area of the use of games in education. It’s inclusion emphasises the wide ranging benefits to be found in this field and the need to consider the existing strengths of games when applying educational goals to them.
Becta is an agency of the British Government with responsibility for providing advice on the use of information and communications technology (ICT) in education. This report offers an overview of the potential uses of computer games to support teaching and learning in schools.
Its scope is therefore necessarily quite broad and focuses on:
investigating what aspects of computer games are of value to education
investigating if and how existing games might be used productively in schools
encouraging the educational software industry to continue the development of high quality software which addresses the requirements of teachers and learners
developing a dialogue with the games sector.
Intended audience:
British Education Department, managers, school administrators, teachers, computer game industry
Description:
This is broadstroke report based on anecdotal evidence from the schools that participated in this national project. A pool of commercially available computer games (not specifically designed for education) previously reviewed by Becta was made available to teachers to use in class.
The teachers were provided with a study related template for each title which covered issues directly related to the National Curriculum, technical issues, language comprehension and content suitability for different ages/year levels. Teachers had to specify their intended learning outcomes but beyond this were free to use the software in the manner that they felt was most appropriate.
The games chosen (and their purposes) were:
The Sims (building a simple model, describe how rules govern models)
SimCity 3000 (building a simple model, describe how rules govern models)
Championship Manager 2000/01 (databases and data manipulation)
Age of Empires (thinking and essential skills)
City Trader (trading of stocks and shares in business, modelling economic activity)
The report describes in some detail the experiences of the learners with the games software and the different applications derived by the teachers.
As a small pilot study, no particularly definitive data has come from this report however it is worth examining for the insights developed by the teachers and the learners in the process of introducing games into the classroom. These include:
Simulation based games can be very useful for stimulating class discussions by providing authentic contexts
Teachers need to frame the activity to ensure that learning objectives can be met.
Teachers should be familiar with a game – both in terms of content and control before using it in class.
The immediate feedback offered in games acts as a strong motivator for learners
Games can offer activities with greater relevance to learner interests – such as football in the case of Championship Manager
Games can act as “platforms for social interaction”(p.5) and stimulate collaboration
The option for licensing games to use on a school network was considered important, given the limitations of running games on a single computer.
Relevance:
This report differs from the others listed here in that it looks at the issue of games in education from a more organisational level and considers issues of practical implementation in the classroom. As such, it makes an important contribution to this overview.
#4 Supporting Learners in a Remote CSCL Environment: The Importance of Task and Communication.
Graves, D. & Klawe, M. (1997). Supporting Learners in a Remote CSCL Environment: The Importance of Task and Communication. Proc. of CSCL ‘97, Toronto ONT
Central theme and scope:
This study looks at two important factors in the design of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) learning resources – the degree to which tasks are structured and the nature of the communication tools available to learners – and their impacts on learning and engagement with the material.
As an early instance of research in this particular field, the study is centred on the experiences of a relatively small (134 participants) sample of elementary school learners.
Intended Audience:
This paper is targeted at educators, instructional designers and other people with an interest in the use of I.T in distance education.
Description:
The researchers used an education computer game called Builder, which “allows two players to design a house using various 2-D layouts and view it in 3-D.”(p.4)
Builder is designed to improve understanding of a number of mathematical concepts including additive and subtractive areas and volumes, tiling of surfaces and the relationship between perimeter and area.
It can be set to provided structured tasks with clear goals or more open ended tasks with undefined goals. It also offers two systems for networked communication – a simple, text chat only version and a second which adds voice chat as well as personal avatars, creating a “virtual presence”.
Pre/Post tests were devised (differing only in numbers and words used in similar equations) to measure learning and a questionnaire developed to examine the socio-motivational effects of the game and the collaboration by distance model.
Additional data came from log files from the game (tasks undertaken and completed, times taken and scores) as well as anecdotal reports from teachers observing the students.
A control group of students who only took the Pre/Post tests was also established.
Learners were pre-tested during the week of the research and on the day worked in pairs in separate rooms. Each pair was given a 5 minute orientation to the system and then were allowed to play for 30 minutes. Some pairs were able to use the simple communication system and others the enhanced version. Some were given structured tasks and others the open tasks. After this the students were given the questionnaire to complete and after all learners had played Builder, they were given the post-test.
The research demonstrated significant improvements in the desired mathematical skills in the learners that had used the game. Learners preferred the enhanced communications tools however they didn’t increase academic gain. Learners did benefit more from the structured tasks than the unstructured ones. Anecdotal reports indicate that learners using the unstructured tasks struggled more with the concepts of the game.
Relevance:
This research complements that of Steinkuehler in some ways, offering a statistical counterpoint to her ethnographic approach. The value of collaboration in learning and particularly in learning through online and networked games is an important example of the benefits of games in education.
Here is the complete list of references – there is some interesting reading here if you are interested in the research going on into game use in schools.
# 1.The Impact of Video Games on Training Surgeons in the 21st Century. (annotated)
Rosser, J., Lynch, P., Cuddihy, L., Gentile, D., Klonsky, J., Merrell, R., (2007) The Impact of video games on training surgeons in the 21st Century. The Archives of Surgery, 142. 181 – 186.
#2. Learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games(annotated)
Steinkuehler, Constance A. (2004) “Learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games” In Y. B. Kafai, W. A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A. S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp.521-528). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
#4 Supporting Learners in a Remote CSCL Environment: The Importance of Task and Communication. (annotated)
Graves, D. & Klawe, M. (1997). Supporting Learners in a Remote CSCL Environment: The Importance of Task and Communication. Proc. of CSCL ‘97, Toronto ONT
#6Use of background music in electronic learning environments
Sedighian, K. & Sedighian, A. S. (1997). Use of Background Music in Electronic Learning Environments. ED-MEDIA 97: World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Calgary, Canada.
#7 A classroom study : Electronic games engage children as researchers
Klawe, M. M. & Phillips, E. (1995). A classroom study: Electronic games engage children as researchers. Proceedings of Computer Support for Collaborative Learning ‘95 (CSCL), Bloomington, Indiana.
#8 Playing together beats playing apart, especially for girls
Inkpen, K., Booth, K. S., Klawe, M. & Upitis, R. (1995). Playing Together Beats Playing Apart, Especially for Girls. Proceedings of Computer Support for Collaborative Learning ‘95 (CSCL), Bloomington, Indiana.
#9 Environmental Detectives – The Development of an Augmented Reality Platform for Environmental Simulations
Klopfer, E. and K. Squire. 2005. Environmental Detectives – The Development of an Augmented Reality Platform for Environmental Simulations. In Press for Educational Technology Research and Development.
#10 Teaching with games – using commercial off-the-shelf computer games in formal education
Implications of the Net Generation on designing interactive multimedia learning resources
Over the last twenty-five years the exponential growth of ICT (information and communications technology) has had a profound effect on our society. It has sparked a shift from an industrially focused culture to what is known as the Information Age.
We now live in a world where information is easily created and shared and where its skilled application is highly valued. This has significant ramifications for education, as the new tools and new ways of thinking necessitate dramatic new approaches to teaching and learning. This directly affects the design of interactive multimedia learning resources.
The so-called Net Generation (Net-Gen) are the first generation to grow up knowing nothing other than this highly connected, information rich world. As “digital natives”, they “think and process information fundamentally differently.” (Prensky 2002). Their use of ICT and attitudes toward ICT and information in general offer us a set of ideas for a new approach to education which embraces the information age. Among these are an emphasis on collaboration, connectivity, flexibility and experiential learning.
The needs and attitudes of the Net-Gen aren’t the only factors that will influence education and multimedia design in the coming years – ongoing research in education, the priorities of industry and society, emerging technology as well as institutional and teacher needs will all play a part.
Examining the key traits attributed to the Net-Gen however allows us to consider practical changes in approach and design that can be made today.
Who are the Net Generation?
While the precise years are disputed, it is generally agreed that the Net-Gen were born in the period between the early 1980s and 2001. They are also referred to as Generation Y, Echo Boomers, the iGeneration and their apparently preferred term, Millennials. (Wikipedia: Generation Y, 2007)
Alan Kay, a member of the 1970’s Xerox PARC team, has described technology as “anything that wasn’t around when you were born” (Frand, 2000). This means that for much of the Net-Gen, personal computers, mobile phones, digital audio, sophisticated computer graphics and even the Internet aren’t considered technology, they are simply a fact of life.
While it is obviously simplistic to ascribe any characteristic to a large group of individuals, there are a number of traits which appear common to many members of the Net-Gen.
Interested in technology: Having grown up with technology, Net-Gen students consider themselves far more Internet savvy than their teachers and report seeing better ways to use technology than they are offered in the classroom.(Oblinger 2003) “Every time I go to school I have to power down”, complains one student according to Prensky. (2001)
Emphasis on collaboration: They gravitate toward group work (Howe & Strauss, 2000) and want to work with people they click with. (Raines 2003) . Massively multiplayer online games popular with the Net-Gen such as World of Warcraft and Starcraft are strongly based on collaboration.
Need Connectivity: In some ways related to their preference for collaboration, the Net-Gen make heavy usage of a plethora of communications tools including SMS, instant messaging, email and particularly online communities such as MySpace to maintain connections with friends and family. This connectivity is 24/7 and the Internet in particular means that it isn’t limited by geography.
Another interesting aspect of connectivity in online communications is that the Net-Gen have “blasé attitudes about the loss of private space” and an “expectation of speaking to an audience even in personal communication” (Wikipedia:Internet Generation, 2007)
Multitasking: Multitasking is considered to be the most practical response to the exponentially increasing sea of information we find ourselves in. (Frand, 2000). As highly connected digital natives more familiar with this environment, the Net-Gen are considered particularly adept at navigating a range of tasks simultaneously, which may include both work and play.
Goal oriented: Net-Gen learners are more focused on skills than knowledge. “In many disciplines, the half-life of information is measured in months and years. From this perspective, what a person can do is more important than what degree they obtained”(Frand, 2000 p.17)
Confident and optimistic: The Net-Gen are seen as highly positive, confident and optimistic. They expect respect (Raines, 2002) and, conscious of their power as consumers, will either speak their mind or vote with their feet if they don’t get what they want.
According to Saulwick Muller Social Research (2006): “Not only has this generation been born into a prolonged period of economic growth, but they have come too late to experience the severe economic restructuring brought about by globalisation and the information revolution.
They have grown up understanding and accepting that the future is all about mobility, adaptability and change. For the most part, they are preparing for it and they embrace it.”(p.5)
Seek instant gratification: The combination of a customer service oriented world and the immediacy of digital technology means that members of the Net-Gen are felt to have “zero tolerance for delays”. (Frand, 2000 p.22).
Marc Prensky (2001) sums most of these traits up nicely when he says that “Digital Natives are used to receiving information really fast. They like to parallel process and multi-task. They prefer their graphics before their text rather than the opposite. They prefer random access (like hypertext). They function best when networked. They thrive on instant gratification and frequent rewards. They prefer games to “serious” work.” (p.2)
Implications for designing interactive multimedia learning resources.
In addition to the obvious technological changes, the Information Age (and globalisation) has had a profound impact on the way people work and live. The increasing rate at which new information and knowledge is generated means that learning has become a lifelong process.
UNESCO’s 1996 report Learning : The Treasure Within (The Delors report) identified a key pillar of education for the future as “Learning to know – the mastery of learning tools rather than the acquisition of structured knowledge. It includes learning to learn and developing concentration, memory skills and the ability to think”. (RED CIT 2000 P.1)
The Information Age, lifelong learning and shifts in family, work and leisure priorities present educational multimedia designers with a range of new opportunities and challenges.
The need for more educational content and new approaches, in combination with enhanced access to tools to create richer and more sophisticated learning resources means that multimedia designers could be well positioned to make a significant contribution to education in coming years.
The learning needs of the Net-Generation feature heavily here and it is their particular desire for these following qualities to be a part of their education that fuels much of this demand. Many of these qualities have also been identified in educational multimedia research as adding to learning.
Flexibility: Flexibility encompasses notions of enhancing access to learning as well as catering to different learning styles. Kearns (1999) takes the position that we can and should “use modern technologies to widen equitable access to education and training opportunities”.
The Internet has long been seen to be a powerful platform for the distribution of information untrammeled by time or space, two significant impediments to learners in the past. It could be argued that multimedia learning resources have been used in one form or another for decades in distance learning practice to address these issues however the speed with which they are now available makes learning more accessible than ever.
Mobile technology takes this accessibility and flexibility to a higher level still by allowing learners to access sophisticated multimedia learning resources anywhere. Many mobile phones, PDAs and other devices support HTML pages, Flash objects, audio and video – any of which could be learning resources. The use of audio and video as podcasts and vodcasts respectively is now well established and offers another option to educational multimedia developers. RFID tags and QR codes (Simpson, 2006) are further options that might considered with mobile technology.
Multimedia learning objects also offer flexibility in terms of providing a wider choice of learning activities which cater to different learning styles. Developers should consider different ways to achieve the same learning outcomes in the process of designing multimedia resources.
Relevance: As already mentioned, the half life of information has dropped significantly in the Information Age (Oblinger, 2003) and this has the potential to quickly outdated some learning resources.
Developers might consider embedding weblinks to information sources (though this too isn’t foolproof), reviewing created resources to a schedule or making some of their multimedia learning resources customisable, allowing teachers/users to make changes if relevant data changes. (Customisability is an underpinning principle of Flexible Learning Toolbox Learning Objects.)
A more significant application of relevance in multimedia learning resources comes when they take the form of simulations and games with problem based approaches. This offers the Net-Generation (and other users) the experiential, skill developing learning that they prefer and enhances learning by making it authentic and context based.
Dalgarno (2001) feels that these support a Constructivist approach to learning, particularly in that they “allow the learner to explore, manipulate, or construct within a world and consequently to discover real or abstract concepts within the domain”. (p.156)
The development of simulations can be an intensive process however the increasing sophistication of multimedia production software as well as the support of growing user communities means that it is getting easier by the day.
It is equally important however for developers to resist the temptation to make use of all of the bells and whistles available to them in the increasingly sophisticated multimedia production software if it is not directly related to the learning content. Pretty pictures and interesting sounds have been found repeatedly to actually depress the learning benefits of multimedia resources. (Colvin Clark & Mayer, 2007)
Interaction: The interactivity of games and simulations is a factor that appeals to many users including the Net Generation. A well designed game/simulation focuses the learners attention and the sense of fun and user control offers high levels of engagement. (Prensky, 2001).
Interaction also has the potential to offer feedback, another key motivator. Virtually any multimedia learning resource can incorporate “practice tools, which require the learner to carry out specific tasks or answer specific questions and provide feedback on the learner’s performance” (Dalgarno, 2001 p.156).
This addresses another of the key Net Generation traits, their impatience with delay.
One issue for educational multimedia developers to consider is the actual nature of the interaction that learners have with the multimedia resources. Does it have to be about pushing buttons or typing? Could it include speaking, singing, gesturing with the mouse, drawing with a tablet, using a web cam? (Dalgarno, 2001)
Structure: The organisation of knowledge is a key factor in teaching and learning. Multimedia offers “more complex and interesting ways to structure and access knowledge.” (Bates, 2000, p.42).
A multimedia learning resource might be structured in a linear fashion like a book, it might work as a website with a hypertext structure or it might consist of a linked list of smaller, self contained learning object, breaking the knowledge up into digestible chunks. These are but three possible approaches of many. The nature of the information age suggests that we need to consider any number of approaches to sharing information. (Bates, 2000)
The goal oriented nature of the Net Generation as well as their desire for flexibility and multitasking tendencies suggests that multimedia learning resources developed with them in mind should offer multiple paths to knowledge acquisition.
Collaboration: The question of collaboration raises a number of questions as to the very nature of multimedia resources and few answers.
Even with interactivity and feedback, do multimedia resources still primarily using a traditional transmission model for learning?
What options are available for learners to collaboratively work on tasks?
Is there a capacity for communication through a multimedia resource?
Could a blog or a wiki be considered a multimedia resource?
Should multimedia learning resources contribute to scaffolding knowledge (or even higher level skills) which the individual learner adds to collaboratively in a separate space or tool?
Given the teamwork oriented, collaboration favouring nature of the Net Generation, these are some of the most significant issues of all to consider in the development of multimedia learning resources.
Bates (2000) makes the salient point that “Learners still need to discuss and argue, to challenge and question what they have learnt”. (p.41). I would extend that to include work together and generate collective knowledge.
As the standard bearers of the Information Age, educational multimedia developers can learn a lot from the Net Generation. Ongoing research in education continues to enlighten our understanding of how multimedia can be more effective but their instinctive use of contemporary ICT and unquestioning acceptance of it as today’s paradigm are driving the need for change now.
It means that the design of interactive multimedia learning resources needs to be more flexible, relevant, engaging and particularly collaborative – and that’s a good thing for all.
(As a Gen-Xer, I would like to mention however that the founders of Google, MySpace, YouTube, Blogger, Odeo and Wikipedia are all Gen X.)
References.
Kearnes, P. 1999 VET in the learning age – the challenge of lifelong learning for all, Paper presented at Post-compulsory Education and Training: Looking to the future, Canberra 27 August 1999.
Raines, C. (2003). Connecting Generations: The Sourcebook for a new workplace. Mississauga, Ontario : Crisp Publications
RED CIT (2000 August) What is Lifelong Learning? Research Digest Canberra: Research and Evaluation Department CIT
Howe, N. & Strauss W (2000). Millennial Rising: The next great generation. New York, NY : Vintage Books
Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers, Gen-Xers & Millennials. Understanding the new students. Educause Review, July-August, 37-47
Bates, T. (2000). Teaching, Learning and the Impact of Multimedia Technologies. Educause Review, September-October, 38 – 43
Frand, J (2000). The Information Age Mindset Educause Review September/October, 14-24
Dalgarno, B (2001) Technologies supporting highly interactive learning resources on the web: An Analysis Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 12. 153-171
Joshua Schachter. (2007, May 27). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 27, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Schachter
Simpson, C. (2006) Make barcodes that can be read by mobile camera and provide web links. Retrieved May 27th, 2007 from http://citfls.blogspot.com/2006/09/make-barcodes-that-can-be-read-by.html
